During the Shang Dynasty (16th to 11th century BC), the invention of “lime glaze” improved upon earlier unglazed pottery that was prone to water seepage, creating favorable conditions for the emergence of porcelain. However, it still did not possess the recognized characteristics of true porcelain, leading to various interpretations such as “glazed pottery,” “primitive porcelain,” and “green-glazed wares,” along with contemporaneous bronze vessels, jade artifacts, and oracle bone inscriptions that share similar characteristics. In addition, the commonly used motifs on Shang Dynasty white pottery, such as taotie patterns, kui dragons, and cicada motifs, along with cloud patterns on “painted pottery” from the Spring and Autumn period and Warring States period (770-476 BC) and inscriptions of pottery artisans’ names or industry marks, serve as valuable evidence for studying early patterns, painting and calligraphy, and seal carving.
The discovery of large-scale pottery figurines of soldiers and horses, as well as painted civil officials, female soldiers, and animal figurines from the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC), not only demonstrates the high level of pottery-making technology but also provides important physical evidence for studying the artisanal names and the measurement and weighing systems of that time, even distinguishing between the calligraphy styles known as “Qin Seal Script” and “Qin Clerical Script.”
In the Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD), the paintings and inscriptions on “painted pottery,” as well as the white, red, and black “clerical script” inscriptions found on common pottery items like bottles, jars, granaries, and jars, serve as tangible evidence for exploring the art of painting and calligraphy during the Han Dynasty. Particularly during the Eastern Han period (25-220 AD), the successful firing of green-glazed porcelain (with an iron content below 2% and firing temperatures reaching 1200℃ to 1270℃) with dense body and lustrous glaze marked the beginning of the first chapter of “porcelain.”
During the Three Kingdoms period (220-280 AD) and the Two Jin dynasties (265-420 AD), there was a phase of popularization and development of celadon porcelain. Notably, the famous celadon grain storage jar inscribed in the third year of Wu Yong’an (260 AD) and the celadon brick inscribed in the fourth year of Xianning in the Western Jin Dynasty (278 AD) are treasures engraved with the popular “regular script” or “cursive script” of that time, serving as important evidence in the appreciation of cultural relics. During the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420-589 AD), the significant differences in titanium (TiO2) content and the proportions of aluminum (Al2O3) and silicon (SiO2) in celadon porcelain formed a fundamental distinction between the body and glaze colors of celadon porcelain in the north and south.
In the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD), famous ceramic kilns such as Xing kiln and Ding kiln in Hebei, white porcelain from Ding kiln, celadon porcelain from Yue kiln in Zhejiang, Tang Sancai pottery from Gongxian kiln in Henan and Yaozhou kiln in Shaanxi, and brown and green glazed porcelain from Changsha kiln in Hunan, gained fame domestically and were exported overseas, marking a brilliant page in cultural exchanges with foreign countries. The successful firing of “translucent white porcelain” from Xing kiln and Ding kiln met the international standard of “translucency” for porcelain today, marking another qualitative leap in the history of ceramics. Concurrently with the export of ceramic ware and the spread of technology, Goryeo in Korea produced “feicai” celadon and “Silla Sancai.” Countries like Japan, Egypt, and Persia also made imitations of Tang Sancai pottery, known as “Nara Sancai,” “Egyptian Sancai,” and “Persian Sancai,” respectively. These are all evidence of cultural exchanges at that time.
The Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD) was a period of unprecedented development in Chinese ceramics. The inventions of gunpowder, the compass, movable type printing, and the advancements in coal mining and maritime industries all indicate a considerable level of scientific and technological development. Therefore, the closely related ceramic industry flourished under such favorable conditions, surpassing any previous era in terms of both quality and quantity. For instance, the world-renowned “Five Great Kilns” — Ding, Ru, Guan, Ge, and Jun kilns, as well as the famous Cizhou kiln, Yaozhou kiln, Longquan kiln, Jianyang kiln, and Jingdezhen kiln, are exemplary of this period. Their products have become exceptionally precious collections in major museums worldwide, with reproductions from various periods still unable to match their quality.
In particular, the improvements in glaze quality of Longquan celadon — the invention of “lime-alkali glaze” — allowed for a thick glaze without dripping, with minimal bubbles in the glaze, resulting in a smooth and elegant artistic effect resembling ancient jade. Similarly, the formation of beautiful “crackle” patterns in the glazes of Guan and Ge kilns, although craftsmen at the time may not have understood the scientific principle of the difference in expansion coefficients between glaze and body leading to crackled or peeled glazes, was in fact an artistic achievement using the physical effects of thermal expansion and contraction as decorative techniques. Even today, the reputation of “Ge glaze” remains, forming a specialized term for ceramic decoration that is widely admired.
During this unprecedented development and enhancement in ceramics, the art of painting and calligraphy also flourished with renowned artists such as Fan Kuan, Guo Xi, Ma Yuan, and Xia Gui in painting, and Mi Fu, Huang Tingjian, Su Shi, and Cai Xiang in calligraphy, achieving fame and leaving a lasting legacy. Some of their influences even extended to certain famous kilns’ ceramic products. For example, many artifacts from Cizhou kiln drew inspiration from popular calligraphy and painting styles of the time. Chen Jiru’s “Nigo Records” also recorded “I bought a white Ding (actually, Cizhou kiln product) bottle in Xiu Prefecture, with four knobs on the mouth, inscribed with the characters ‘Renhe Hall,’ resembling the style of Mi’s father and son.” Some surviving Song and Jin Dynasty Cizhou kiln ceramic pillows show signs of adopting techniques from renowned artists such as Guo, Fan, Ma, and Xia in their landscape and flora and fauna paintings.
Furthermore, during this period, the export of ceramics remained prosperous. According to Zhao Rushi’s “Records of Various Foreign Countries” in the Southern Song Dynasty, there were trade relations with 56 countries and regions, including 15 engaged in ceramic trade with China. Particularly, the spread of ceramic-making technology, besides the mentioned Goryeo “feicai” celadon, black flower porcelain with white background from Cizhou kiln also indirectly reached Japan and was termed “Egaolie.” Records also mention Kato Shirou (also known as Kato Keisho), who is hailed as the “ancestor of Japanese pottery.” He came to Fujian during the 16th year of Jiading in the Southern Song Dynasty (1223 AD) to study ceramic making. He later produced black glazed porcelain in his hometown Owari, which became known as “Seto ware” (setoyaki). “Seto ware” is still the common name for ceramics in Japan, indicating the extent of technological and artistic progress during the Song Dynasty and the significant role of ceramics in cultural exchanges, rightfully representing the pinnacle of Chinese ceramic history.
The Yuan Dynasty (1206-1368 AD) witnessed innovations in ceramic production while building upon previous foundations. Among these innovations, the blue and white porcelain as well as the red underglaze porcelain from Jingdezhen kiln stood out as exceptional. The production scale of Longquan celadon also expanded compared to before, with larger sizes, smooth surfaces like mirrors, and minimal deformation, indicating advancements in technology and trade development. Although the products from Jun kiln were relatively rough compared to before, the range of production widened, covering areas like Henan, Hebei, Shanxi, Shandong, and Inner Mongolia. Historical records and archaeological discoveries show that ceramic exports included Central Asia, West Asia, Southeast Asia, as well as countries and regions in East, West, and North Africa. For instance, the blue and white porcelain with black flower designs on a white background from the Yuan Dynasty, imitated by Iran, Turkey, and Vietnam, closely resembled Chinese ceramics in terms of design and patterns, showcasing the profound influence of Chinese ceramics at that time.
Previously and during this period, some minority ethnic scripts also appeared on ceramics. For example, some Liao Dynasty brown-glazed chicken leg bottles were inscribed with Khitan scripts, while some Western Xia black-glazed jars were engraved with Western Xia scripts. Additionally, Yuan Dynasty Cizhou kiln and Longquan kiln ceramics once featured the new Mongolian script known as “Phags-pa script.” Although such ceramics are relatively rare, they are indeed precious treasures that play a unique and important role in the study of ethnic cultures and folklore, as well as in the chronological determination of cultural relics.
During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 AD), ceramic production entered a new historical stage, with the Guan kilns in Jingdezhen showcasing remarkable developments. In addition to improving traditional varieties like Yingqing, blue and white, and underglaze red, they also created many exquisite colored glazes and overglaze enamels. Examples include bright red glaze, sky blue, filled white glaze, delicate yellow glaze, peacock green, monochrome wares, qing jin blue, polychrome, and doucai, all of which were highly valued in history. Other notable works include Dehua white porcelain from Fujian, purple sandware from Yixing in Jiangsu, gray-blue glazed ceramics (also known as “Guangjun” or Jun ware) from Shiwan kilns in Guangdong, as well as fa hua and liu li from Shanxi, each with its distinct style and enduring reputation among domestic and overseas collectors, continuing to evolve to this day.
Of particular note is the unique painting style of folk kilns’ blue and white, polychrome ceramics in late Ming Jingdezhen, displaying a mature and ancient charm, with a free and skilled brushwork reminiscent of Xu Wei and Chen Hongshou’s artistic flair. Whether depicting landscapes, figures, flowers, or animals, the paintings were not only fresh and lively but also full of wit and lasting appeal, admired by connoisseurs throughout history. The calligraphy on Guan kiln ceramics also displayed distinct characteristics, often resembling the styles of famous calligraphers. For instance, the Xuande reign mark imitated the Yan Zhenqing style, displaying a sharp and vigorous quality akin to iron strokes or a sharp sword. The Chenghua reign mark emulated Li Yong’s style, appearing balanced yet bold and elegant. The Zhengde reign mark followed Chu Suiliang’s style, resembling floating silk threads, conveying a sense of leisure. The Jiajing reign mark, rumored to mimic the calligraphy of the powerful minister Yan Song, featured bold and unrestrained strokes, often unmatched by later imitations. During the late Ming Wanli and Tianqi periods, ceramic decorations were influenced by Dong Qichang, Mi Wanzhong, and others who advocated for novelty over tradition in painting and calligraphy. Consequently, the brushwork lost some of its origins and directness, favoring a more natural and rustic approach.
In particular, some ceramics from the Yongle, Xuande, Chenghua, and Zhengde reigns featured Arabic or Tibetan, and Sanskrit inscriptions, serving as historical evidence of the status of ethnic minorities and cultural exchanges with foreign lands.
During this period, China’s ceramic exports and the dissemination of ceramic-making techniques abroad became more frequent. Longquan celadon, for example, was called “Celadon” in Europe after its transmission and is now universally known as “qingci” (青瓷). In Japan, there is a specialized term “shichuan” for Longquan celadon, distinguishing it from Song and Yuan Dynasty Longquan celadon known as “zhen” and “Tianlongji shou.” During the Zhengde (or possibly Wanli) reign, a Japanese ceramicist named Gorotaifu (also known as Wu Xiangrui) came to Jingdezhen to study blue and white and polychrome ceramics, and his legacy works are still circulated domestically and internationally. Vietnam and Iran also hired Chinese ceramicists to teach their art, leading to the appearance of Arabic, Tibetan, and Sanskrit decorations on Ming Dynasty ceramics, along with innovative shapes such as “wudang zun,” “weijiao ping,” and “cangcao ping,” all reflecting the specific influences from foreign cultural and commercial interactions at that time.
During the early Qing Dynasty (1616-1911), the ceramic craftsmanship in Jingdezhen reached an unprecedented peak. Tang Ying, an official of the imperial kilns, recorded in his “Tao Ye Tu Shuo” that there were around two to three hundred folk kilns and more than a hundred thousand craftsmen. Especially noteworthy were the official kilns’ porcelain, known for their fine texture, vibrant colors, lustrous glazes, and intricate carvings. For instance, during the Kangxi period, there were blue and white, polychrome, red glazes, sky blue, ge xue lan (a special type of blue glaze resembling snow on a roof), and monochrome wares. During the Yongzheng and Qianlong periods, there were fencai (powder enamel), doucai (combined colors), and falangcai (foreign colors), along with various color glazes and “biomimetic” porcelain imitating bamboo, wood, ivory carvings, bronze ware, and flora and fauna. Items like the Zhuan Xin Ping (a type of vase with a swiveling neck) were also created, showcasing unparalleled craftsmanship admired both domestically and internationally.
One exceptional piece preserved in the Palace Museum is the “Qing Qianlong Jingdezhen kiln various glazed soup dragon double-eared large vase,” known as the “mother of porcelain.” It stands at 86 centimeters without deformation, incorporating different materials, firing temperatures, and atmospheres to combine blue glaze, red glaze, jun kiln glaze, ge kiln glaze, kiln transformation glaze, blue and white, doucai, fencai, polychrome, and falangcai. This rare and monumental work demonstrates the remarkable achievements in technology and ceramic craftsmanship, leaving viewers in awe even today.
Apart from Jingdezhen, other historical kilns such as Cizhou, Dehua, Yixing, and Shiwan continued their production. There were also emerging folk kilns across various regions, with records from Ye Linzhi’s “Compendium of Ceramics from Ancient to Modern China” listing as many as 84 such kilns, marking a period of great prosperity in the ceramic industry. China’s invention of porcelain-making spread to Western countries during this period. By the latter half of the 18th century, countries like Italy, France, Germany, and Austria were able to imitate Chinese porcelain. These historical achievements reflected China’s leading position in ceramics internationally, a source of pride but also a topic for reflection.
While the early Qing period marked a pinnacle in ceramic development, subsequent years saw a decline due to societal, political, and cultural factors, along with conservative scientific techniques and mass production leading to lower-quality ceramics during the late Qing and early Republican periods. The quality of ceramics significantly declined in terms of body texture, glaze colors, shapes, and patterns compared to earlier periods. The export market also shrunk, leading some historical kilns to cease production or face near-extinction, as depicted in literary works like “Tao Ya,” “Shuo Ci,” and “Compendium of Ceramics from Ancient to Modern China,” which lamented this deteriorating trend. This decline persisted until gradual improvements starting from the 1950s.
