When discussing the creation of objects from clay, Chinese mythology mentions several figures associated with this craft, including Nuwa, Shennong, and Ning Fengzi. According to legend, Nuwa is the goddess who created humans from clay: “It is said that after the heavens and earth were created, there were no people, so Nuwa molded humans from yellow earth. It was so laborious that she could not keep up, so she dragged a rope through the mud and used it to make people.” Slightly later than Nuwa is Shennong: “In the time of Shennong, the heavens rained down millet. Shennong then tilled the land and planted crops, made pottery, forged tools… to cultivate the wilderness. After that, the five grains flourished and the fruits were abundant.” This myth from ancient history, recorded in the Book of Zhou, narrates how the sage Shennong created pottery for the people and taught them to sow crops. From this, we see that Shennong was not only the god of agriculture but also the deity credited with inventing pottery. Another famous figure in mythology related to pottery is Ning Fengzi. Ning Fengzi served as the chief potter during the time of the Yellow Emperor, which means he was in charge of pottery making. The Lie Xian Zhuan (Biographies of Immortals) records: “Ning Fengzi was a person of the Yellow Emperor’s time, widely regarded as the chief potter of the Yellow Emperor. A man once assisted him with managing the fire, and he could produce five-colored smoke, which he taught to Ning Fengzi. Ning Fengzi perfected the technique of firing, observing the smoke and ashes to judge the quality. He was eventually buried in Ningbei Mountain, hence the name Ning Fengzi.” Ancient people often attributed the invention of certain things to gods and sages, and these mythological stories offer an imaginative explanation for the origins of ancient pottery.
For a long time, the question of the origin of pottery has been like an unsolvable mystery, attracting many experts and scholars to explore and study it. As archaeological and ethnographic data have become more abundant, people have gained a deeper understanding of the origins of pottery, especially in China.
In the past, studies on the origin of pottery often referenced Morgan’s Ancient Society and Engels’ The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State. In the first chapter of Ancient Society, Morgan discusses the origin of pottery: “Humanity must have first experienced village life, and simple technologies must have reached a relatively advanced level before pottery could be made.” In other words, “Before people felt the need for pottery, a series of inventions more necessary and suited to a lower social state must have already appeared. The beginning of village life, some degree of mastery over food, wooden utensils, bark fiber weaving, basketry, bows and arrows, etc., all preceded the art of pottery making.” Morgan also noted in his annotations that “Gogay, in his ethnographic investigations in the last century, was the first to draw attention to the process of pottery invention. He suggested that people initially applied clay to flammable containers to prevent them from burning, eventually realizing that clay alone could serve this purpose, thus leading to the creation of pottery.” Morgan further observed, “Among the indigenous peoples of America, the earliest pottery seemed to be made by forming clay around a core of rushes or willow twigs, which was then fired until the framework was burned away.” Engels, in his work The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State, also discussed the origin of pottery, stating, “It can be proven that in many places, perhaps universally, pottery making began by applying clay to woven or wooden containers to make them fire-resistant. It was soon discovered that shaped clay could be used without an internal framework.” Engels’ discussion on the origin of pottery largely builds upon Morgan’s work in Ancient Society.
Some scholars, both domestic and foreign, have conducted more cautious studies on the origin of pottery within the context of primitive social culture, offering different perspectives. For instance, Soviet scholar Kosven mentioned the pottery issue in his book Primitive Culture. He argued that the notion of pottery’s origin, “raised in the eighteenth century and still relatively persistent, suggests that the production of ceramic utensils began with the application of clay to woven containers. This view evidently considers local and accidental phenomena as general occurrences. Ethnographic data tell us that, besides applying clay to woven containers, there were other primitive methods of pottery making. One involved pressing a depression into a piece of clay, shaping it by hand, and then firing it to create a pot.” Kosven also listed several other methods of pottery making, such as the Andaman Islanders’ technique, where “they first shaped a piece of clay into a hemisphere, then used a shell to hollow out the inside,” and another similar method, where “natural objects were used as molds, either internally or externally, and the clay was hand-shaped to form pottery.” The third method he mentioned was the “coil method,” which involved “rolling clay into several flat, round strips, about three to four centimeters thick and forty to fifty centimeters long, then spiraling them up, pressing them inside and out to shape, resulting in rough pottery.” Kosven’s description of these pottery techniques supplements Morgan’s Ancient Society and Engels’ The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State.
When Engels wrote The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State, he mainly referenced Morgan’s Ancient Society. However, due to the limitations of the time, there was not yet a wealth of archaeological and ethnographic material available to supplement their work. Thus, Morgan and Engels’ discussions on the origin of pottery were confined to specific regions. With the continual discovery of early Neolithic sites, many scholars have revisited and reexamined the question of pottery’s origin. We now understand that different regions, due to differences in natural environments and various social, economic, and ethnic factors, experienced different technological developments and mastery. The creation of pottery, as an invention and a craft, would naturally have diverse methods. Therefore, research on the origin of pottery should fully utilize new findings from archaeology, ethnography, and experimental archaeology to arrive at accurate conclusions. Based on the current materials, several viewpoints on the origin of pottery have emerged.
- Molding with woven frameworks: This was once the most common viewpoint. The process involved applying clay to the inside and outside of woven baskets made of bamboo or rattan, which were then fired to form containers that did not leak. Later, pottery was made directly from clay without using woven containers as molds. However, many scholars have challenged this view, conducting simulations that suggest this method would only result in a pile of fragments rather than usable pottery. Therefore, it is unlikely that the earliest potters created pottery by applying clay to woven baskets or containers.
- Pinching method: Proponents of this view believe that humans likely began pottery making by handcrafting small objects rather than large vessels. In the long course of social practice, early humans recognized the plasticity of clay and gradually, consciously began pinching small objects by hand, such as plants, captured animals, or everyday items. Evidence from the late Paleolithic period shows that humans were already shaping clay into animal figures, such as the clay models of bison and bears found at Magdalenian culture sites in Europe, and the clay figurines of animals and women discovered at the Dolní Věstonice site in former Czechoslovakia. This suggests that before humans made clay vessels, they had already learned to shape small clay items and observed that these clay products became more durable and waterproof after firing, leading them to create practical clay objects. Technologically, the pinching method is simpler and more feasible than molding with woven baskets, making it easier to achieve successful firing.
- Slab-building method: This view posits that people did not initially know how to coil clay strips to create pottery. Instead, they first shaped clay into slabs, then used molds to support the slabs, layering them until the clay walls reached a certain thickness and height. The molds were then removed, and the piece was further shaped. The earliest molds were likely made from natural objects such as plant husks or bone or stone containers, which were used before woven containers were invented. Since using natural objects as containers predates the invention of woven containers, they provided natural, convenient “molds” for early pottery making. Only after progressing through stages of molding and shaping would humans develop coiling methods. Today, in some parts of Zhejiang, China, potters still use the technique of applying clay slabs to internal molds, removing the molds after forming the piece. This long practice of molding and applying slabs eventually led to the development of coiling, suggesting that the slab-building method predated the coiling method.
- Solid mold clay application: This method involves creating a solid mold from clay and applying additional clay onto the mold to form pottery. The clay was pressed or smeared onto the mold rather than layered with clay strips or slabs, making this method distinct from slab-building or coiling methods. Using a mold helped solve the challenges of shaping complex forms, particularly in making vessels with intricate shapes like narrow-necked jars. However, this method also had drawbacks, such as the need for consistent moisture in the clay to prevent cracking during firing, leading to low production efficiency and high rates of defective products. Moreover, because the molds were simple, the resulting pottery was also simple in form, typically limited to jars, pots, bowls, and similar shapes. This method has only been found in the early Neolithic Dadiwan culture in Gansu, suggesting it was a localized pottery-making technique of that period.
- Clay slab construction: This method involves first kneading the clay into balls, flattening them into slabs, and then layering these slabs. The potter shapes the slabs into specific forms by manipulating the joints between the layers, resulting in a variety of shapes such as jars, bowls, and cups. Pottery constructed from clay slabs usually appears larger and heavier than pottery made using coiling or other methods. This method was widely used in later periods, particularly in making large containers like jars and urns. The most notable use of this method can be seen in the construction of urns for burials. The jointing process allowed for the creation of relatively large and stable forms, which was advantageous for constructing large containers with simple shapes.
- Coiling method: The coiling method involves rolling clay into strips or coils, stacking them in a spiral or concentric pattern, and then smoothing the joints between the coils to form the vessel. This method allows for a variety of shapes and sizes, making it a versatile technique for pottery making. Evidence suggests that the coiling method was widely adopted during the Neolithic period and became one of the most common pottery-making techniques. The method’s simplicity and flexibility made it well-suited for producing both utilitarian and decorative pottery.
The coiling method’s widespread use suggests that it was a significant advancement in pottery-making techniques, allowing for greater experimentation and creativity in form and decoration. Many early Chinese pottery artifacts, such as those from the Yangshao culture, were likely produced using this method.
Conclusion
In summary, the origin of pottery likely involved a variety of methods and techniques that developed over time, influenced by the specific needs and resources of different regions and cultures. Early pottery-making techniques, such as molding with woven baskets, pinching, slab-building, solid mold clay application, and coiling, each contributed to the evolution of pottery as a craft. The diversity of these methods reflects the complexity and ingenuity of early human societies as they developed the technology to create durable, functional, and aesthetically pleasing ceramic vessels. As archaeological research continues, we may uncover more evidence that further enriches our understanding of the origins and development of pottery across different cultures and time periods.
