The ceramic industry in Jingdezhen during the Qing Dynasty reached a new historical peak, producing porcelain with fine texture, lustrous glaze, vibrant colors, and intricate carvings. Examples include Kangxi period’s blue and white, polychrome, red glaze, and monochrome; Yongzheng and Qianlong periods’ famille rose, doucai, and enamels, as well as various colorful glazes, achieving unprecedented success. The reasons for this were not only the end of the corrupt rule of the Ming Dynasty due to peasant uprisings at the end of the Ming and the Qing Dynasty’s rule by a minority ethnic group (the Manchus) in the Central Plains, but also the adoption of measures favorable to production development similar to previous dynasties in order to consolidate their power, especially the abolition of “craftsman registration,” which boosted the enthusiasm of craftsmen. Coupled with Jingdezhen’s advantageous natural conditions (such as high-quality clay and abundant pine wood), skilled craftsmen from various regions, and centuries of accumulated experience and technology, Jingdezhen’s position as the central hub of porcelain production gradually solidified in the late Ming Dynasty, reaching even greater scale during the Qing Dynasty’s Qianlong period with many new inventions, adding a glorious chapter to China’s ceramic history.
During the Qing Dynasty, apart from the official kilns, Jingdezhen had “two to three hundred areas of civilian kilns, with no fewer than one hundred thousand craftsmen.” According to the remains of kiln sites, the kilns in the Qing Dynasty were two to three times larger than those in the Yuan Dynasty, which is evident from this. Tang Ying, the superintendent of the imperial kilns at the time, recorded in his “Illustrated Explanation of Ceramics” that there were as many as 57 types of high and low-temperature glazes innovatively imitating ancient styles during the Yongzheng period alone. For example, imitations of famous kilns from the Song Dynasty such as Ding, Jun, Guan, and Longquan were exceptionally lifelike. Other well-known glazes included sky blue, clear blue, pinkish blue, plum blue, European blue, European red, clear red, begonia red, eggplant purple, rose purple, pouring purple, dark green, oil green, celadon green, snake skin green, pouring yellow, catfish yellow, rice color, moon white, purple gold, black gold, gilding, silver wiping, white filling, ink painting, and many others. These precious works undoubtedly inherited the achievements of previous generations and the innovations of craftsmen. However, as a minority ethnic feudal official, Tang Ying was able to “live and eat with craftsmen for three years,” and he “deeply understood the nature of clay and firing,” which undoubtedly played a certain role and made achievements in promoting the improvement and advancement of the official kilns at that time, earning the nickname “Tang Kiln.” Other kilns related to the roles of the official kilns and the superintendent kilns during the Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong periods include “Lang Kiln,” “Nian Kiln,” and the purported civilian kilns like “Xiong Kiln.”
The Zang Kiln refers to the porcelain fired during the early Kangxi period under the supervision of Wei Yingxuan. According to the “Tao Lu,” its characteristics are described as having a smooth body, thin and translucent quality, and a variety of colors. Snake-skin green, catfish yellow, Ji green, and yellow speckled are particularly outstanding. The pouring of yellow, pouring of purple, pouring of green, blowing of red, and blowing of blue are also beautiful. Later, the Tang Kiln also imitated its glaze colors. The Lang Kiln’s name has varied interpretations in the past, but today it is mostly believed to be named after Lang Tingji, who supervised the kiln affairs in the late Kangxi period. There is a poem by Xu Jinzhai titled “Walking in the Lang Kiln, Presented to the Deputy Chief with a Purple Hibiscus,” praising it:
“Praising the pottery of the previous dynasty,… Outstanding Lang Kiln lately pushed forward. Originally named after the Deputy Chief,… The Deputy Chief’s love for antiquity embodies artistic pursuits in leisure from politics. The earth, water, fire, and wind condense into national treasures in skilled hands. Comparing its imitations to the genuine, confusing the universe, everything returns to pottery. After the rain, the sky is clear, red is polished like jade, offering it as a grand tribute in palace halls.”
From this narrative, we not only learn about the origin of the “Lang Kiln” name and its notable achievements in blue and red glazes but also about Lang Tingji’s apparent passion for antiquity, where even amidst political duties, he could emulate or present ceramic art. Liu Tingji, a Qing scholar, praised Lang Kiln ceramics in “In the Garden Journal,” saying, “Imitating the ancient seamlessly, indistinguishable from the real. Its imitations of Chenghua and Xuande styles, glaze colors, orange-peel patterns, brown spots, and inscriptions are so lifelike that they are extremely difficult to distinguish.” Currently, it is generally known that “Lang Kiln Red” is a masterpiece imitating “Chenghua Red” (also known as “Ruby Red”), and there are a few rare artifacts that have been passed down. However, the Forbidden City Museum still houses several Qinghua (blue and white) pieces from Lang Kiln, such as the “Cold River Fishing and Fishing” patterned snuff bottle (commonly known as “Big Fishing Alone”), which are extremely rare externally. These also belong to the category of imitations of Chenghua and Xuande works, as mentioned in Xu Jinzhai’s poem, “Comparing its imitations to the genuine, confusing the universe.” “In the Garden Journal” also mentions “Blue and White Plates with White Background,” “White Bowls with Birthmarks,” and “Gold-Drawn Five-Clawed Old Wine Cups,” indicating the extent to which the ceramics produced at that time could imitate the real.
The Nian Kiln was supervised by Nian Xiyao during the Yongzheng period. According to the “Tao Lu,” his porcelain pieces were often in eggshell colors, with round shapes shining like silver, incorporating blue colors, and sometimes featuring intricate patterns such as dark flower motifs or delicate designs. The innovation based on imitating antiquity stemmed from these works. Qing scholar Cha Jiantang praised the Nian Kiln in the “Nian Kiln Ink Annotation Song,” saying, “The ceramic art of the dynasty is unparalleled, and recently, the Nian Kiln is considered the best. It doesn’t lose to the Ru and Ge Kilns of the Ming Dynasty, let alone the quality of the Yongle porcelain.” This indicates the esteemed status of Nian Kiln ceramics in the eyes of contemporaries. The poem also mentions the “Five Great Kilns of the Song Dynasty” but does not mention the “Chai Kiln,” showing that previous scholars had different opinions about it, and this contributes to the argument against the existence of the Chai Kiln.
The Xiong Kiln has various legends surrounding its origins. While some ceramic pieces sold in antique shops today are labeled as “Xiong Kiln,” it is challenging to definitively distinguish them within the collections of the Forbidden City. However, records in the Qing Dynasty archives mention products such as “Xiong Kiln double-necked vases,” “Xiong Kiln magnolia-shaped washbasins,” and “Xiong Kiln crackle-pattern round brush washbasins.” From these descriptions, it seems that the Xiong Kiln’s productions were not limited to just one type of enamel color.
In the Qing Dynasty, the organization and production system of the imperial kilns differed from those of the Ming Dynasty. According to the “Tao Cheng Ji Shi Bei,” during the Yongzheng reign, around twenty thousand round and carved pieces were presented to the capital in each autumn and winter season. If we consider rejected pieces, the output might be two to three times higher, but this was still not very high compared to the number of workers (around three hundred). The annual expenditure was about eight thousand taels of silver, indicating limited improvements in production efficiency compared to the earlier Longqing and Wanli periods of the Ming Dynasty.
Despite this, the imperial kilns continued the practice of combining official and civilian production, which was essentially a form of harsh exploitation of civilian kilns but with some reduction in the system’s severity. The “Tao Lu” records a category called “official ancient wares,” describing them as the finest products of the town kilns, known as “official” because they could be used by officials. The “official ancient wares” included various types, such as mixed celadon, light painted celadon, and imitations of glazes from famous ancient kilns.
During the early Qing Dynasty, Emperors Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong valued porcelain greatly. Kangxi especially promoted scientific and technological advancements, leading to innovations like fencai (powdered colors) and falangcai (enameled colors). Traditional styles like wucai (five colors), su sancai (plain tri-color), and red glazes were also improved upon. However, during Yongzheng and Qianlong’s reigns, imperial kiln products sometimes became overly intricate, constrained by feudal superstitions, and fell into a somewhat vulgar aesthetic. For example, records from the Yongzheng era in the Forbidden City archives frequently criticize or restrict certain falangcai porcelain works in terms of design, materials, and patterns. The patterns on fencai porcelain during the Qianlong period were often elaborate and carried double meanings. These developments in porcelain production not only reflected technological advancements but also the aesthetic preferences and influences of the emperors and the society of that time.
